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classifications

summary

    This subchapter looks at classifications.

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stub section

    This subchapter is a stub section. It will be filled in with instructional material later. For now it serves the purpose of a place holder for the order of instruction.

    Professors are invited to give feedback on both the proposed contents and the propsed order of this text book. Send commentary to Milo, PO Box 1361, Tustin, California, 92781, USA.

classifications

    This subchapter looks at classifications.

    Classifying is the act of placing things into groups.

    A famous example is the Dewey Decimal Classification used by some libraries.

concepts and referents

    A concept is a category.

    A referent is aspecific member of a category.

    Fido is a referent in the concept of dogs. Cats and dogs are referents in the concept of mammals. Mammals and reptiles are referents in the concept of animals.

species and genus

    A species is a smaller, more specific group, while a genus is a larger, more general group.

    Using the above example, cats and dogs are species of the genus mammals, while mammals and reptiles are species of the genus animals.

    Note that these older philosophical concepts of species and genus predate the more complex modern biological system of categories.

abstract and concrete

    Each higher layer of genus becomes more abstract. Each lower layer of species becomes more concrete.

    Abstract is a relative term.

    Concrete is not limited to physical items. For example, specific emotions (sad, happy) are more concrete than emotional states.

rules of classification

    There are two basic rules for good classifications:

    (1) A set of classifications must be used according to a consistent principle that is mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive.

    (2) Classifications must be made on essential attributes.

mutually exclusive

    Mutually exclusive means that any particular species can only be in a single genus.

    Green characters and Muppets are not mutually exclusive, because Kermit the Frog qualifies for both genuses.

jointly exhaustive

    Jointly exhaustive means that all of the species taken together (jointly) will make up the complete (exhaustive) set of the genus.

    The species felines (cats) and canines (dogs) are not jointly exhaustive for the genus mammals, because there are still many additional creatures that qualify as mammals, but aren’t felines or canines.

consistent principle

    It is important to have a consistent principle for organizing your classifications.

    The species of (1) green things and (2) big things and (3) mammals are not consistent because the first measure is color, the second size, and the third a biological group.

    The species of red, green, and blue are consistent because they are all colors.

essential attributes

    It is important that the choice of rule for classification be based on an essential attribute.

    Organizing books by the colors of the covers would create a bizarre library, while organizing books by subject (such as the Dewey Decimal Classification) creates a library that is easy to use.

    This is because the subject matter (or author) is an essential characteristic of a book, while the color of the cover isn’t. The color of the cover can change from printing to printing.

levels of organization

    The levels of ogranization need to make sense.

    As an example, the Dewey Decimal Classification is made up of ten classes. Each class is divided into ten divisions. Each division is divided into ten sections.

    Class 0 is Computer science, information & general works. Division 00 is Computer science, information & general works. Section 004 is Data processing & computer science, 005 is Computer programming, programs & data, and 006 is Special computer methods.

• 000 Computer science, information & general works
• 000 Computer science, information & general works
• 000 Computer science, knowledge & general works
• 001 Knowledge
• 002 The book (i.e. Meta writings about books)
• 003 Systems
• 004 Data processing & computer science
• 005 Computer programming, programs & data
• 006 Special computer methods
• 007 (Unassigned)
• 008 (Unassigned)
• 009 (Unassigned)
• 010 Bibliographies
• 020 Library & information sciences
• 030 Encyclopedias & books of facts
• 040 Biographies
• 050 magazines, journals & serials
• 060 Associaitons, organizations & museums
• 070 News media, journalism & publishing
• 080 General collections
• 090 Manuscripts & rare books
• 100 Philosophy and psychology
• 200 Religion
• 300 Social sciences
• 400 Language
• 500 Science
• 600 technology
• 700 Arts & recreation
• 800 Literature
• 900 History & geography

    Make sure that your categories have a species-genus relationship. For example, an enzyme is a kind of protein and therefore they have a species-genus relationship, but an amino acid is is a component part of a protein and therefore they don’t have a species-genus relationship.

outlines

    The outlines that you were taught in school are an example of a proper organization of classifications. Outlines developed specifically because they are useful tools for organizing a well-reasoned argument, presentation, or essay.

1. first main topic
1. first subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
3. third subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second main topic
1. first subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
3. third subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
3. third main topic
1. first subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
3. third subtopic
1. first inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic
2. second inner topic
1. first innermost topic
2. second innermost topic

elements

    In Western antiquity, the ancient Egyptians and the Greeks developed the idea of four or five basic elements: fire, water, air, earth, and spirit. The Chinese developed the five basic elements of wood, fire, earth, metal, and water.

    The Western elements represented the basic underlying principles of natures: three states of matter (earth = solid, water = liquid, and air = gas) and energy (fire = energy). The spirit or soul was sometimes included as a fifth element.

    In modern Western civilization the word element was purposely reused to describe the fundamental chemical elements that make up matter.

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